By – Kadambari Chand

Abstract

This article explores the prevalent feminist understanding of religion being inherently patriarchal by moving away from religious beliefs and focusing on religious institutions. It argues that many patriarchal features associated with religion actually emerged alongside the consolidation of land, property and political power under the dominant ruling groups, after the Neolithic Revolution, which were males. This article claims that religious institutions and authorities interpreted and propagated religious ideas in a manner that would benefit the ruling elites through legitimisation. Using a Marxist and historical framework, this article presents how religion became intertwined with the structure of male dominance, with early proto-feudal arrangements helping to institutionalise patriarchy through religious sanctions. 

Introduction

In feminist and subaltern studies, religion has often been labelled as patriarchal and discriminatory, shaping society to subordinate women and other disadvantaged groups. They most often point out religious scriptures, rituals, and myths to highlight that religion is inherently exclusionary to women. While these critiques are very valuable in understanding the role religion plays in society, they sometimes place more emphasis on the cultural and ideological dimension which draws away the attention from the broader economic and  historical framework under which these religious institutions evolved into what we see today. If one is to understand the complexity of religion, one must analyse religion with the socio-economic development which occurred simultaneously with the development of religion. This article argues that religion is not inherently patriarchal, rather its patriarchal features are historically produced through its entanglement with evolving economic structures and the consolidation of the patriarchal power in the society. 

Emergence of a patriarchal society

Many scholars, such as Gerda Lerner, highlight that patriarchy is not natural; instead, it’s a construct that developed with the increasing importance of land and property and control over surplus. The early societies, which were hunter-gatherer societies, were relatively egalitarian in their organisation. Many women acted in complementary ways to ensure subsistence; as a result, the roles were not rigid but largely based on social needs. The  Neolithic Revolution, was an event which signified the shift from hunting and gathering towards agrarian-based societies,  causing previous social roles to shift as well. These shifts became evident around the formation of archaic states. According to Lerner, this shift was accompanied by the change in kinship organisation, economic relations, establishments in religions and a shift in cosmogonies expressing the ascendancy of male god figures. She further states that this process of the shift in power relation between sexes took place at different time periods in relation to the level of development or the type of development pertaining to various kinds of societies.

Therefore, it is understood that patriarchy was not inherent in society and was the result of various interconnected socioeconomic processes. Furthermore, since economic systems are embedded within the social and cultural relations, therefore the development of patriarchy must be understood through both socio-cultural and economic structures in the society including religion . This raises one crucial question about how the institution of patriarchy became so intertwined with religion that religion itself became an institution dominated by patriarchal ideas. 

Religion as a Source of Patriarchal Legitimacy

Once men gained control over land, property, and resources, the next thing that was of importance was the moral and social legitimation of their rule so that their dominance could continue. Religion eventually became one of the most important tools through this legitimisation and hegemonization of patriarchy in society. Women in all the major religions are given the positions subordinate to men or below men. They are shown as weak and emotional, who can’t make decisions for themselves and therefore need men for protection. This can be seen in the religious texts of various religions, Manusmriti places women under male authority, first her father, then her husband and then her son therefore denying them any autonomy. Similarly, in christianity blaming Eve for eating the forbidden apple depicts women as emotional and led by temptation who should not be allowed to have any authority and decide for their own.  According to Gerda Lerner, this is not accidental; this subordination was constructed over time through religious texts and practices. Over time, this subordination became hegemonic, becoming a part of everything from scriptures to myths, which in turn dictated how people acted in their day-to-day life and how the society functioned. 

This process can further be understood by Antonio Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony. Gramsci argues that dominant groups, particularly male dominated and social elites, consolidate power not only through political and economic control but also through shaping cultural and ideological institutions. Building on Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony, it can be argued that institutions within civil society, such as religion, function as ideological apparatuses that shape beliefs and values. Through this process, religion presents social hierarchies as natural and morally justified. In this way, patriarchal codes become integrated into religious codes, doctrines, beliefs and practices; therefore, religion appears intertwined naturally instead of being historically constructed. This is when Gramsci’s concept of ‘commonsense’ comes into play. According to which, what the general public considers commonsense is not neutral, instead it is progressively shaped by the dominant groups in  the society and accepted and internalised by the society as unquestioned truths. Similarly, in this case the society accepted the gender hierarchy and  male dominated society as natural and inevitable. Therefore they are not only accepted but also reproduced within the society, with women themselves internalising and perpetuating the structures that oppress them. 

Construction of a Patriarchal Family and the Regulation of Women’s Autonomy

Consolidation of patriarchal authority was followed by restructuring of the family and marriage systems, which regulate women’s autonomy. Tim Dyson and Mick Morre argue that in South Asia, kinship structures became central to the patriarchal society. For example, in northern India, the dominant system of patrilineal descent and village exogamy required women to marry outside their village and live with their husband’s family. This reduces their natal support networks and makes them a part of a highly patriarchal hierarchical family structure dominated by senior male authority. 

Similarly, Jack Goody highlights the regulation of marriage and family by the church in Western Europe. The church increasingly enforced monogamous marriage, restricted divorce and at the same time prohibited women from having any sexual relations outside the institution of marriage. These regulations, seen both in India and Western Europe, were concerned with legitimacy, as it was very crucial for the transfer of land and wealth. By regulating the bodily and sexual autonomy of women, deciding the boundaries and rules of marriage and constructing patriarchal families, the church and the dominant powers were able to maintain their power and the feudal order of the society. 

Furthermore, many postcolonialist scholars like Ann Laura Stoler, also highlight the role played by colonialism in reshaping the social norms surrounding intimacy, sexuality, family life and family structure in the colonies. Colonial administrations frequently tried to impose European christian norms and morals regarding these on the indigenous people, through legal codification, missionary intervention and the promotion of christian ideals of monogamy and domesticity. Stoler argues that the intimate sphere of family and sexuality became an important site through which colonial power operated. In many contexts this deepened the existing patriarchal structures in the colonies by privileging male authority and restricting women autonomy.

Reinterpreting Religious Texts

In recent years, a growing trend of reinterpretation of the religious texts through a feminist lens has been witnessed among scholars. Sacred texts such as the Bible, Quran and the Vedas are increasingly being reexamined and reinterpreted using the postcolonial, poststructuralist and feminist lenses. They look out for ambiguities in interpretation, translations ,or biases that might have shaped the popular understanding and readings of these texts, one such example of inaccurate translation would be of the hebrew word ‘ezir’ for Eve, which is translated as a helper instead of ‘strength’ or ‘power’ which would be better fitting in this context. Such reinterpretation shows us that religion and its understandings are not fixed; instead, they allow room for questions and dialogue, which brings out other understandings. At the same time, these new interpretations also bring to the fore the changing power dynamics in society; women and the unprivileged have gained more power in relation to earlier times and thus are representing themselves by questioning the patriarchal authority. 

Conclusion

In conclusion, although religion as practised at present appears deeply patriarchal in nature and is often invoked to justify the oppression of women, the relationship between religion and patriarchy is much more nuanced. To understand this complex relationship, one must analyse religion in the wider context of historical and socio-economic change in societies. What is observed is that religion became intertwined with patriarchal norms, simultaneously with the increasing importance of land and property in society when analysed through these frameworks. Furthermore, it reveals how power relations at a particular time can shape larger institutions to maintain and propagate that idea, making it almost hegemonic. However, with the changes in social relations, these hegemonic ideas also change and present themselves in different forms.

Author’s Bio

Kadambari Chand is a first-year student pursuing a B.A. (Hons.) in Political Science at O.P. Jindal Global University. Her interests lie in understanding how class, caste, religion, and other intersecting structures of power shape political and social life. 

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