By -Vansh Aggarwal

Introduction:

“Justice has always evoked ideas of equality… But equality requires the absence of special privileges.” – Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

For a country that often speaks of caste-based injustice, its governance remains oddly blind to the actual numbers that define its social landscape. The last comprehensive caste enumeration was conducted in 1931, and since then, India has made ambitious promises of social justice with little empirical evidence to support them. In recent years, however, the demand for a caste census has resurged, challenging the long-held silence around caste data. As states push for more autonomy in collecting social data and scholars advocate for data-backed policymaking, the caste census marks the shift from assumptions to accountability. It is a potential turning point in India’s approach to equity, resource allocation, and democratic representation. This article examines the historical trajectory, political debates, and transformative potential of the caste census within the evolving framework of Indian public policy.

Historical Overview of Caste Census in India:

Caste enumeration in India dates back to the colonial period, when the British government collected caste data in every decennial census up to 1931. The rationale behind caste enumeration was to understand the social fabric and enable administrative control. However, critics argue that it also entrenched social divisions. Post-independence, India consciously distanced itself from caste-based population data, guided by Nehruvian ideals of caste transcendence and national unity. The 1951 Census omitted caste enumeration (except for SCs/STs), setting a precedent for the decades that followed. Despite periodic calls for a renewed caste census, especially from backward-class commissions and regional parties, successive governments avoided it, citing fears of re-igniting caste tensions and the logistical complexity of classification. 

The only major deviation came with the 2011 Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC), which aimed to collect comprehensive data on caste alongside socio-economic indicators. While the socio-economic data was released, the caste-related findings were withheld due to inconsistencies and classification errors over 46 lakh caste categories were reportedly returned, making the data virtually unusable without extensive validation. Institutional hesitance has also played a role in stalling caste enumeration. The Registrar General of India and the Ministry of Home Affairs have often cited administrative and definitional difficulties in capturing caste accurately. Politically, the lack of consensus across parties, coupled with fears of unsettling existing reservation structures, has made the caste census a contentious issue, leaving the policy process largely blind to the evolving composition and demands of Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and other groups.

Caste Census and the Promise of Social Justice:

India’s constitutional vision of social justice is grounded in Articles 15 and 16, which prohibit discrimination and guarantee equality of opportunity, especially in public employment. These provisions, along with the Directive Principles of State Policy, urge the state to promote the welfare of all, particularly those who are socially and educationally disadvantaged. In this context, caste becomes a vital lens to assess inequality and marginalisation. Despite being deeply embedded in Indian society, caste data has largely been missing from policymaking since 1931, leaving welfare interventions to operate without a full understanding of the population’s caste composition.

Experts argue that a caste census is essential to fulfil constitutional promises. Caste is the most relevant axis of social stratification in India today. The absence of updated caste data leads to misallocation of resources, reinforcing historical disadvantages rather than correcting them. Without robust data, claims of backwardness or dominance remain anecdotal and subject to political manipulation. Accurate caste enumeration thus helps in evidence-based policymaking, ensuring that social justice measures are responsive, inclusive, and grounded in empirical realities rather than political assumptions.

How the Caste Census Can Redefine Welfare Policy:

While caste data is often seen as a tool to recalibrate reservation policies, its implications go far beyond quotas. A well-conducted caste census can help transition from a generic population-based welfare model to a more nuanced, need-based approach. This allows governments to deliver schemes and benefits, ranging from education to healthcare, more precisely to those who need them the most. For instance, instead of uniformly allocating funds for school scholarships or rural development, data from a caste census can identify micro-regions or communities within OBCs or EBCs that are more deprived, ensuring more efficient and equitable policy outcomes.

Most existing welfare programs lack precision because they operate without knowing the actual socio-economic conditions of caste groups. With detailed caste data, schemes like skill training for youth, housing subsidies, or maternal health initiatives could be designed to directly address community-specific barriers. Rural development policies, too, such as the PMAY or MGNREGA, could be refined using this data, aligning budget allocations with on-ground deprivation. Additionally, accurate caste data could inform reforms in the ‘creamy layer’ concept, ensuring that truly marginalised groups are not crowded out by more advanced sub-groups within the same category. The caste census offers a chance not just to correct statistical blindness but to reform how the state envisions and delivers social welfare, making it more targeted, just, and impactful.

Power, Representation, and Resistance:

Caste enumeration is not just a technical exercise. It carries deep political implications. Many dominant groups oppose a full caste census, fearing it might reconfigure existing power equations or reduce their share in reservations and welfare schemes. For some, especially upper castes or advanced OBCs, the release of actual numbers could expose their relative privilege, and trigger demands for restructured benefits. Political mobilisation around caste data has also made the issue highly sensitive, often dividing public opinion along ideological lines.

On the legal front, debates around the right to privacy post-Puttaswamy judgment have raised concerns about identity-based data collection. Critics argue that such data, if not safeguarded, could lead to misuse or social profiling. At the same time, proponents argue that anonymised caste data is essential for social justice. The broader challenge lies in balancing ethical data collection with constitutional goals of equality, without succumbing to politicisation or public backlash.

Public Policy in the Age of Caste Data:

The integration of caste data into governance marks a shift toward data-driven policymaking that values transparency and accountability. Accurate caste information can help identify the most marginalised sections, enabling targeted interventions and better monitoring of public schemes. For example, budgetary planning could be adjusted to reflect the actual share of OBCs, SCs, and STs in sectors like education, housing, or entrepreneurship support. This enhances not just efficiency but fairness in distribution.

Globally, countries like the US and UK routinely collect racial or ethnic data to design affirmative action policies. India’s resistance to caste enumeration appears increasingly outdated when compared to such international practices. However, implementation remains a challenge. Poor categorisation, politicisation of data, or delays in release, like with the 2011 SECC, can undermine the process. There’s also a risk of tokenistic use of data, where numbers are cited without meaningful policy change. For caste data to redefine governance, it must be institutionalised with safeguards, transparency, and commitment to reform rather than political expediency.

Conclusion:

As India grapples with deep-rooted inequality and fragmented access to opportunity, the caste census presents a critical moment of reckoning. It offers not just data, but direction, an empirical map to navigate the complexities of social justice in a modern democracy. Without accurate caste data, welfare remains imprecise, representation remains skewed, and historical wrongs remain unaddressed. As Dr. B.R. Ambedkar once said, “You cannot build anything on the foundation of caste. You have to get rid of it.” But how can we dismantle what we refuse to even measure? The caste census is not a step backwards into identity politics. It is a leap forward into accountable governance. It promises to realign policy with citizens’ lived realities, provided it is carried out with sincerity, sensitivity, and constitutional integrity. The real question now is not whether India is ready for a caste census, but whether it can afford to keep governing without one.

Author’s Bio:

Vansh Vijay Aggarwal is a B.A. LL.B. student at Jindal Global Law School and a columnist at CNES.

Image Source: About Caste Census | UPSC Current Affairs | IAS GYAN